英语句子的五大主要成分可以由单词充当,但很多时候是通过短语(phrase)和分句(clause)完成的。
短语主要有名词短语(n. phrase),形容词短语(adj. phrase)和介词短语(prep. phrase)三种;分句主要有并列分句(coordinate clause),从属分句(subordinate clause)和隶属短语的分句三种;另外还有介于短语和分句之间的不定式(infinitive),v-ing和v-ed形式,对于它们的归属需要专门讨论。
2.1-2.3 短语(phrase)
2.1 名词短语(noun phrase)
充当主语和宾语的phrase一定是名词性的,倒过来也可以说名词性的phrase是可以担任主语和宾语的:
The girl is my sister.
The blonde girl is my sister.
The blonde girl in blue jeans is my sister. 穿蓝色牛仔裤的金发姑娘是我的妹妹/姐姐。
名词girl有了前置或后置修饰就变成了一个noun phrase,girl是这个noun phrase的头(head)。这个以girl为头的noun phrase也可以充当宾语:
I like the girl.
I like the blonde girl.
I like the blonde girl in blue jeans.
名词短语结构包括名词的限定词(determiner),前置修饰语(premodifier)和后置修饰语(postmodifier),上例中的后置修饰语是介词短语in blue jeans。后置修饰语的形式很多,除了介词短语外还有不定式(infinitive),v-ing和v-ed形式,that 分句(that clause),和同位语(appositive)等等,这在“第三章 名词短语”中有详尽阐述。(排版敲定后填写页码)
2.2 形容词短语(adj. phrase)
形容词后面可以跟介词短语(prep. phrase)、不定式(infinitive)、that 分句(that clause)、wh-分句(wh-clause)等作它的补语,从而形成长长的形容短语(adjective phrase),请看例句:
We are confident of success. 我们对成功充满信心。(adj. + prep. phrase)
I was very fortunate to be there when it was happening. 此事发生时我有幸正好在那里。(adj. + to infinitive)
We are certain that he will get over his illness. 我们确认他能够战胜疾病。(adj. + that clause)
I was clear (of) what we had to do. 我清楚我们必须要做的事。(adj. + wh-clause)
John is careful (about) what to do with his money. (adj. + wh-infinitive)
关于形容词短语将在“第四章形容词的用法和形容词短语的构成”中详尽阐述。(排版敲定后填写页码)
2.3 介词短语(prep. phrase)
介词(preposition)后可以跟名词性的单词、短语或分句,构成介词短语:
He was standing at the door. 他站在门口。 (prep.+n.)
He threw the key at me. 他把钥匙扔给了我。 (prep. + pron. )
He did nothing but/except complain. 他除了抱怨什么事也不做。(prep.+ bare infinitive)
This is a question of whom to serve. 这是为谁服务的问题。(prep. + wh-infinitive)
She was rather angry at what he said. 她听了他所说的话很生气。(prep.+wh-clause)
2.4-2.6 分句(clause)
2.4 并列分句 (coordinate clause)
并列句有两个以上的分句构成,中间由并列连词、连接副词或分号连接:
He is a skillful hacker and his wife doesn’t know that.
他是一个很厉害的黑客,而他妻子一点都不知道。(and并列连词,表示对照)
Do you like to go alone or would you like to have me for company? 你是要自己去呢,还是愿意要我做伴呢? (or为并列连词,表示选择)
There was no news; nevertheless, she went on hoping. 没有消息,然而她继续抱着希望。(nevertheless是连接副词,表示让步)
I wouldn’t live in a place like New York; I hate big cities. 我不愿意住在象纽约这样的地方;(因为)我不喜欢大城市。(分号相当于一个连词,可以表示很多意思)
关于并列分句的详细论述请见“第九章连词和分句”。
2.5 从属分句(sub-ordinate clause)
所谓从属分句就是用一个句子充当主句(main/matrix clause)的一个成分,简称从句:
That he is a skillful hacker(黑客)isn’t known to all of us. 他是一个很厉害的黑客这件事我们大家都不知道。(主语从句,that clause as subject clause)
Why he did it doesn’t concern us. 他为什么做这件事与我们无关。(主语从句,wh-clause as subject clause)
All of us don’t know that he is a skillful hacker. 我们大家都不知道他是一个很厉害的黑客。(宾语从句,that clause as object clause)
We fully understand what he meant. 我们完全理解他的意思。(宾语从句wh-clause as object clause)
A huge advantage of Photoshop(一种相片处理软件)is that you have more ways to learn it.
Photoshop的最大优势在于你可以通过多种途径学习它。(主语补语从句或表语从句 that clause as subject compliment clause or predicative clause)
The problem is what we should do to help him. 问题是我们该做些什么来帮助他。(主语补语从句或表语从句 wh- clause as subject compliment clause or predicative clause)
以上例句中的从属分句均是句子结构的必须成分。
作为句子附加成分的状语除了使用副词,介词短语,也可以由分句充当,叫作状语从属分句,简称状语从句,即adverbial(sub-ordinate)clause。
The police arrived at his home when he was gaining unauthorized access to the government data. 当他即将获取政府的非法数据的时候,警察来到了他的家。(时间状语 adverbial clause of time)
He painted where he happened to be. 他走到哪里就画到哪里。(地点状语adverbial clause of place)
He was late because he missed the bus. 他迟到了,因为他误了公交车。(原因状语adverbial clause of reason/cause)
He shut the window so that the neighbors could not hear the radio. 为了不让邻居听到收音机他关了窗户。(目的状语adverbial clause of purpose)
He bought a big house, so that he had more space to paint in. 他买了一个大房子,从而有了更大的地方作画。(结果状语 adverbial clause of result)
If I make a promise, I keep it. 如果我许下诺言,我就遵守。(条件状语 adverbial clause of condition)
Although he was Spanish, he spent most of his life in Germany. 他虽然是西班牙人,但他的大半生是在德国度过的。(让步状语adverbial clause of concession)
关于状语从句详见“第九章连词和分句”。
2.6 隶属短语的分句(clause attached to phrase)
英语中主要的三种短语(名词短语、形容词短语和介词短语)里边都可以包含分句构成长长的短语,这些长短语充当句子的某个成分:
The house whose windows are broken is unoccupied. 那个窗户坏了的房子是空的。(house名词短语充当主语,里边有后置修饰的定语分句relative clause)
We use margarine that contains vitamin A. 我们吃含有维生素A的人造黄油。(margarine名词短语充当宾语,里边有后置修饰的relative clause)
She was afraid that he would be angry. 她怕他会生气。 (afraid形容词短语作主语补语,里边包含有that clause)
Could you tell me something about where we can go on a picnic. 您能告诉我可以去什么地方吃一次野餐吗?(about介词短语修饰宾语something,about后边跟有wh-clause)
以上这些隶属名词短语、形容词短语或介词短语的分句是短语的一个成员,不是主句的一个成分,和主句没有从属关系,因此不能把它们叫成从(属分)句,传统语法将它们统统叫成从句是一种误解。需要再次强调的是,clause(分句)是一个上位概念,包括并列分句(coordinate clause),从属分句/从句(sub-ordinate clause)和短语内的分句(clause within a phrase)
2.7 -2.10 非限定性分句(non-finite clause)
2.7非限定形式划归分句的理由(non-finite forms classified as clause)
不定式(infinitive),v-ing和v-ed这三种非限定形式属于短语还是分句呢?传统语法将它们称作非谓语动词,或非限定动词(non-finite verb),因为它们不充当谓语,不需要考虑主谓一致的问题。传统语法将它们归类到短语,分别叫作不定式短语、现在分词短语、过去分词短语和动名词短语。夸克作者团队把现在分词和动名词合起来,归类成三种非限定形式,并且认为它们介乎于短语和分句之间,更加倾向于分句,其理由是:
1. 它们有逻辑主语,能够构成七种句型的任何一种,具有时态和语态形式;
2. 可以将它们改写成完整的句子,其语法性质如同句子构成的clause一样可以是名词性的(作主语,宾语,表语等)、形容词性(作主补或宾补,作名词的修饰语)和副词性的(作状语)。
正因为如此,夸克语法把这三种形式归结到clause,完整的句子作为clause为限定性分句(finite clause),这三种形式的分句是非限定性分句(non-finite clause),分别叫作infinitive clause,v-ed clause和v-ing clause。叫它们为clause就提醒我们一定要考虑有关动词所能构成的句子结构,一般来说phrase就不需要考虑这类事情了。
分类是语法研究必须的工作,分类艰巨性就在于如何归类那些处于中间状态的项目,本书对此有专门阐述,详见“第十章英语语法中的模糊逻辑”
2.8 不定式分句(infinitive clause)
Infinitive clause(包括不带to的infinitive,即bare infinitive clause)具有名词性、形容词性和副词性。
1. 充当主语(subject)、宾语(object)、主补(subject complement)和名词的同位语(appositive),表现其名词性:
To teach Elizabeth is a pleasure. 教伊丽莎白是一件令人开心的事。(作主语,as subject)
He pretended to have been studying. 他假装一直在学习。 (作宾语,as object)
The goal of the trip was to cross Antarctica on foot. 这次旅行的目的地是步行穿过南极洲。(作主补,as subject complement)
The builder had a commitment to finish the work on time. 建筑商承诺过要按时竣工。(作名词commitment的同位语,as appositive of n. “commitment”)
关于infinitive clause 作名词的同位语详见3.16 不定式分句作同位语。
2. 充当名词的修饰语(post modifier),表现其形容词性:
He is the teacher to teach us English next term. 他是下学期教我们英语的老师。(as post modifier of n. “teacher”)
Do you like something to eat? 你想吃点什么吗? (as post-modifier of pron. “something”)
关于infinitive clause 作名词的后置定语详见3.13 不定式分句作后置定语。
3. 充当状语(adverbial),表现其副词性:
He hesitated in order/ so as to choose the right word. 他迟疑了一下,以便选择一个合适的字眼。(作目的状语,as adverbial clause of purpose)
We hurried to the station only to learn that the train had left. 我们急忙赶到车站,结果得知火车已经开走了。(作结果状语,as adverbial clause of result)
He spoke slowly enough to make everyone hear him clearly. 他讲的很慢,足以能使大家听清。(作结果状语,as adverbial clause of result)
To look at him, you could hardly help laughing. (= If/as long as you look at him,…)只要看他一眼,你就会忍不住大笑。(作条件状语as adverbial clause of condition)
He opened his lips as if to say something. 他张开嘴,好像要说什么。(作方式状语adverbial clause of manner)
2.9 v-ing 分句(v-ing clause)
V-ing 分句同样具有名词性、形容词性和副词性。
1. 充当主语(subject)、宾语(object)、主补(subject complement)、名词同位语(appositive)等表现其名词性:
Hiring qualified people is becoming more difficult. 雇用合格的人选越来越困难。(作主语,as subject)
He denied knowing anything about their plans. 他否认知道有关他们计划的任何信息。(作宾语,as object)
Her main goal is finishing high school and getting into a university. 她的主要目标是中学毕业后考上大学。(作主补,as subject complement)
His habit, reading newspaper at night, remains unchanged. 他晚上读报的习惯没有变。(作名词habit的同位语,as appositive of n. “habit”)
2. 充当名词的修饰语(noun modifier),表现其形容词性:
Climate change is an important problem requiring our utmost attention. 气候变化是一个要求我们特别重视的问题。(后置修饰名词problem,as post-modifier of n. “problem”)
The orchestra, having been practising all day, were very tired by evening. 练习了一整天的乐队队员们到晚上就筋疲力尽了。(后置修饰名词orchestra,as post-modifier of n. “orchestra”)
[注]很多单个v-ing单词前置修饰名词或充当名词的补语就是形容词了:
a pleasing(=pleasant) look使人愉快的神情
The design is pleasing (=pleasant) to eyes. 图案令人悦目。
I find the book very interesting (=attractive). 我觉得这本书很有趣/很有吸引力。
3. 充当状语(adverbal),表现其副词性:
Fearing a trial, he fled the country. (=because he feared …) 由于担心受审,他逃离了祖国。(作原因状语,as adverbial clause of reason)
He ended up living in a nursing home. 他最终生活在一所护理医院里。(作结果状语,as adverbial clause of result)
[注] v-ing clause表现为形容词性还是副词性有时候是模糊的,譬如上边的例句The orchestra, having been practising all day, were very tired by evening. 完全可以改成Having been practicing all day, the orchestra were very tired by evening. 由于练习了一整天,乐队队员们到晚上就筋疲力尽了。(副词性,作原因状语,as adverbial of cause)
2.10 v-ed分句(v-ed clause)
V-ed分句(v-ed clause)只具有形容词性和副词性。
1. v-ed分句充当名词修饰语(noun modifier),主补(subject complement)和宾补(object complement)表现其形容词性:
Is the car repaired by that mechanic your son’s? 机修工修理的汽车是你儿子的吗? (作名词car的后置修饰语,as postmodifier of n. “car”)
The article is well written. 这篇文章写得好。(作主语补语,as subject complement)
Keep your mouth shut. 闭嘴。(作宾语补语,as object complement)
2. v-ed分句充当状语(adverbial),表现其副词性:
Left untreated, the disease attacks the central nervous system and is often fatal. (=if it is left untreated) 如果不医治的话,这个疾病就会攻击中枢神经,这经常是致命性的。(作条件状语,as adverbial clause of condition)
Lunch finished, the guests retired to the lounge6. 吃完中饭,客人们到客厅休息。(作时间状语,as adverbial of time)
了解了夸克语法体系的七种基本句子结构,知道了充当句子成分的除了单词外还有短语和分句,明白了相关的短语和分句的语法性质,我们就可以理解《全新大学英语语法》后续各章节的安排顺序,进入全新的语法体系。
Exercises
Ⅰ. Point out the grammatical function of each phrase in italics in its sentence.(指出每一个斜体短语在各自句子中的语法作用)
Part A Noun phrase
1. The behavior of the teacher toward his pupils should be exemplary.
2. All of us have criticized the behavior of the teacher toward his pupils.
3. The key point is the behavior of the teacher toward his pupils.
4. All present are talking about the behavior of the teacher toward his pupils.
Part B Adjective phrase
5. These scientists are interested in Antarctic research.
6. The scientists interested in Antarctic research attended the meeting.
7. Interested in Antarctic research, the scientist attended the meeting.
8. These scientists are interested to attend the meeting.
Part C Prepositional phrase
9. I’m disappointed with you.
10. I managed to beat the dog off with a stick.
11. Her eyes shone with delight.
12. Who is that girl with yellow hair and dark eyes?
13. The bridge is under construction.
14. He took me for a fool.
15. He was surprised at what he saw.
Ⅱ. Judge the clauses in italics in the sentences whether they are coordinate, subordinate or attached to phrases. (判定句中斜体分句是并列分句、从属分句还是隶属于短语的分句)
1. He heard an explosion and he phoned the police.
2. He heard an explosion so that he phoned the police.
3. I’m wondering why he phoned the police.
4. I don’t know the reason of why he phoned the police.
5. The person who phoned the police heard an explosion.
6. I was surprised that he phoned the police.
7. An idea occurred in his head that he should phone the police.
8. When he phoned the police, he heard another explosion.
9. When construction can begin depends on how soon the survey of the route is completed.
10. A most trivial argument about who should go and fetch the bread from the kitchen was going on when I came in.